Ensuring the security of power generation systems is a pillar of the proper functioning of each state. Energy security is fundamental to ensure both economic growth and social welfare. As energy storage has not developed in an efficient extent, covering the current and prospective power demand is a major challenge for transmission system operators. Moreover, the activities that are to be taken should be technically and economically justified and need to meet the requirements of environmental protection. Cooperation between neighboring countries in the field of electricity exchange is among the activities undertaken to ensure the safety of the power generation systems. The integration of electricity markets is one of the key challenges of the European Union’s energy policy. The European Commission issued a directive on interconnection, according to which the capacity of interconnections should total 10% of installed capacity until 2020 (and 15% until 2030) in each Member State. The main objective of this study is to assess the changes in electricity imports and exports in 2003–2018 and to investigate the current level of cross-border exchanges between Poland and the neighboring countries. This paper also answers the question of whether Poland will fulfil the obligations set by the European Commission. In addition, the paper presents the risks and the challenges related to fulfilling the mentioned commitments. The results of the study indicate that the development and modernization of network infrastructure in the field of cross-border exchange are necessary because, in the context of the forecasted increase in electricity demand, Polish generation units will not be able to meet the demand.
The article is an attempt of providing basic information on the Polish Register of Ships – (rejestr okrętowy), its legal principles, construction and mode of operation. The text is by no means a comprehensive legal analysis of this institution – such a study would have necessitated much more time and effort, but it is rather a synthetic guidance on how the register is designed, how it works, or at least how it should have worked and what sort of purposes it primarily serves. The publication reflects a present status of legislation in Poland, i.e. the respective regulations of the Polish Maritime Code enacted in 2001. It should be noted that a draft of a new Polish Maritime Code has recently been prepared, that designs the Polish Register of Ships in a slightly different, more flexible and up-to-date, mode. However, at the moment, we are not able to predict when the new regulations might be enacted and become applicable. Polish maritime hypothecation and mortgage are subject to a separate study that shall be presented in the near future.
The Bogdanka coal mine, the only currently operating mine in the Lublin Coal Basin (LCB),
extracts coal from the Upper Carboniferous formations of the LCB. The average sulfur content in
the No. 385/2 seam is 0.98%, while in the case of the No. 391 seam it is slightly higher and amounts
to 1.15%. The iron sulfides (pyrite and marcasite) in bituminous coal seams form macroscopically
visible massive, vein, and dispersed forms. A microscopic examination has confirmed their complex
structure. Massive forms contain euhedral crystals and framboids. The sulfide aggregations are often
associated with a halo of dispersed veins and framboids. Pyrite and marcasite often fill the fusinite
cells. Framboids are highly variable when it comes to their size and the degree of compaction within
the carbonaceous matter. Their large aggregations form polyframboids. The cracks are often filled
with crystalline accumulations of iron sulfides (octaedric crystals). The Wavelenth Dispersive Spectrometry
(WDS) microanalysis allowed the chemical composition of sulfides in coal samples from the
examined depoists to be analyzed. It has been shown that they are dominated by iron sulfides FeS2 –
pyrite and marcasite. The examined sulfides contain small admixtures of Pb, Hg, Zn, Cu, Ag, Sb, Co,
Ni, As, and Cd. When it comes to the examined admixtures, the highest concentration of up to 0.24%,
is observed for As. In addition, small amounts of galena, siderite, and barite have also been found in
the examined coal samples. The amounts of the critical elements in the examined samples do not allow
for their economically justified exploitation. Higher concentrations of these elements can be found in
the ashes resulting from the combustion process.
Im Koran wird eine Religionsgemeinschaft der Sabier genannt. Damit können aus lautlichen Gründen nicht die südarabischen Sabäer gemeint sein, wie man früher geglaubt hat. Heute werden nach Meinung vieler Gelehrter die Mandäer mit den Sabiern in Verbindung gebracht. Die Berichte über die Sabier stimmen aber weitgehend nicht mit den religiösen Vorstellungen und rituellen Handlungen der Mandäer überein. In der Literatur der Mandäer kommt die Selbstbezeichnung „Sabier“ nicht vor. Deshalb verbergen sich hinter diesem Namen mit großer Wahrscheinlichkeit die Elchasaiten oder eine samaritanische Sekte. Die Verwendung des Namens machte aber die Mandäer unangreifbar und sie konnten als Sabier des Korans und Besitzer eines Buches, das von Johannes geoffenbart wurde, bis auf den heutigen Tag im Herzen der islamischen Welt als einzige gnostische Religionsgemeinschaft überleben.