Definition of a composite [1] describes an ideal composite material with perfect structure. In real composite materials, structure is usually imperfect – composites contain various types of defects [2, 3–5], especially as the casted composites are of concern. The reason for this is a specific structure of castings, related to course of the manufacturing process. In case of metal matrix composite castings, especially regarding these manufactured by saturation, there is no classification of these defects [2, 4]. Classification of defects in castings of classic materials (cast iron, cast steel, non-ferrous alloys) is insufficient and requires completion of specific defects of mentioned materials. This problem (noted during manufacturing metal matrix composite castings with saturated reinforcement in Institute of Basic Technical Sciences of Maritime University Szczecin) has become a reason of starting work aimed at creating such classification. As a result, this paper was prepared. It can contribute to improvement of quality of studied materials and, as a consequence, improve the environment protection level.
Simulation software can be used not only for checking the correctness of a particular design but also for finding rules which could be used
in majority of future designs. In the present work the recommendations for optimal distance between a side feeder and a casting wall were
formulated. The shrinkage problems with application of side feeders may arise from overheating of the moulding sand layer between
casting wall and the feeder in case the neck is too short as well as formation of a hot spot at the junction of the neck and the casting. A
large number of simulations using commercial software were carried out, in which the main independent variables were: the feeder’s neck
length, type and geometry of the feeder, as well as geometry and material of the casting. It was found that the shrinkage defects do not
appear for tubular castings, whereas for flat walled castings the neck length and the feeders’ geometry are important parameters to be set
properly in order to avoid the shrinkage defects. The rules for optimal lengths were found using the Rough Sets Theory approach,
separately for traditional and exothermic feeders.
Simulation software dedicated for design of casting processes is usually tested and calibrated by comparisons of shrinkage defects
distribution predicted by the modelling with that observed in real castings produced in a given foundry. However, a large amount of
expertise obtained from different foundries, including especially made experiments, is available from literature, in the form of
recommendations for design of the rigging systems. This kind of information can be also used for assessment of the simulation predictions.
In the present work two parameters used in the design of feeding systems are considered: feeding ranges in horizontal and vertical plates as
well as efficiency (yield) of feeders of various shapes. The simulation tests were conducted using especially designed steel and aluminium
castings with risers and a commercial FDM based software. It was found that the simulations cannot predict appearance of shrinkage
porosity in horizontal and vertical plates of even cross-sections which would mean, that the feeding ranges are practically unlimited. The
yield of all types of feeders obtained from the simulations appeared to be much higher than that reported in the literature. It can be
concluded that the feeding flow modelling included in the tested software does not reflect phenomena responsible for the feeding processes
in real castings properly. Further tests, with different types of software and more fundamental studies on the feeding process modelling
would be desirable.
The article summarizes the theoretical knowledge from the field of brazing of graphitic cast iron, especially by means of conventional
flame brazing using a filler metal based on CuZn (CuZn40SnSi – brass alloy). The experimental part of the thesis presents the results of
performance assessment of brazed joints on other than CuZn basis using silicone (CuSi3Mn1) or aluminium bronze (CuAl10Fe). TIG
electrical arc was used as a source of heat to melt these filler materials. The results show satisfactory brazed joints with a CuAl10Fe filler
metal, while pre-heating is not necessary, which favours this method greatly while repairing sizeable castings. The technological procedure
recommends the use of AC current with an increased frequency and a modified balance between positive and negative electric arc polarity
to focus the heat on a filler metal without melting the base material. The suitability of the joint is evaluated on the basis of visual
inspection, mechanic and metallographic testing.
A significant development of the foundry industry contributes to the creation of high reliability and operational strength castings so that they meet specific standards in accordance with customers’ needs. This technology, however, is inseparably connected with casting defects in finished products. Cast products are subject to various defects which are considered acceptable or not, which is conditioned by the alloy chemical composition and strength characteristics, that is, generally – qualities to be agreed between the foundry and the customer. It is the latter that led the authors to research on designing a tool enabling the most reliable possible assessment of the emerging casting defects, which after proper consultations can be repaired and the casting – sold. The paper presents an original tool named the Open Atlas of Defects (OAD), developed for the last few years to support the evaluation of cast iron defects using Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) casting defects analysis tools (DCC card – Demerit Control Chart, Pareto-Lorenz analysis and ABC analysis). The OAD tool structure was presented as an integral part of the original system module for acquisition and data mining (A&DM) in conjunction with the possibilities of using selected tools for defect analysis support on the example of cast iron casting.
The paper presents the results of experimental-simulation tests of expansion-shrinkage phenomena occurring in cast iron castings. The
tests were based on the standard test for inspecting the tendency of steel-carbon alloys to create compacted discontinuities of the pipe
shrinkage type. The cast alloy was a high-silicone ductile iron of GJS - 600 - 10 grade. The validation regarding correctness of prognoses
of the shrinkage defects was applied mostly to the simulation code (system) NovaFlow & Solid CV (NFS CV). The obtained results were
referred to the results obtained using the Procast system (macro- and micromodel). The analysis of sensitivity of the modules responsible
for predicting the shrinkage discontinuities on selected pre-processing parameters was performed, focusing mostly on critical fractions
concerning the feeding flows (mass and capillary) and variation of initial temperature of the alloy in the mould and heat transfer
coefficient (HTC) on the casting - chill interface.
The results of researches of sorption processes of surface layers of components of sand moulds covered by protective coatings are
presented in the hereby paper. Investigations comprised various types of sand grains of moulding sands with furan resin: silica sand,
reclaimed sand and calcined in temperature of 700oC silica sand. Two kinds of alcoholic protective coatings were used – zirconium and
zirconium – graphite. Tests were performed under condition of a constant temperature within the range 30 – 35oC and high relative air
humidity 75 - 80%. To analyze the role of sand grains in sorption processes quantitavie moisture sorption with use of gravimetric method
and ultrasonic method were used in measurements. The tendency to moisture sorption of surface layers of sand moulds according to the
different kinds of sand grains was specified. The effectiveness of protective action of coatings from moisture sorption was analyzed as
well.
Knowledge of the role of sand grains from the viewpoint of capacity for moisture sorption is important due to the surface casting defects
occurrence. In particular, that are defects of a gaseous origin caused by too high moisture content of moulds, especially in surface layers.
The paper presents results of the possibility of adapting the Althoff-Radtke test for High Chromium Cast Iron. The Althoff-Radtke test is a
clump attempt used for steel. The Althoff-Radtke test has four different lengths of clamp which qualifies it as a test to quantitatively take
into account different kinds of shrinkage ΔL. The length of the slot of the cracked corner and the length of each staple (50 - 350 mm) are
the parameters tendency to cast cracks. Castings of white cast iron have a high tendency to hot cracking due to the large range of
solidification temperatures, unfavorable kinetics parameters of shrinkage, and especially a lack of expansion before shrinkage. Shrinkage
of high chromium white cast iron is similar to the shrinkage of cast steel, and is approximately 2%. Therefore it is important to test
susceptibility to hot cracks. Research was carried out under industrial conditions. Four melts were performed, one of the initial chemical
composition and the other three modified by different amounts of Fe-Ti, respectively, 0.25%, 0.5% and 0.75% Fe-Ti. The propensity for
hot cracking was based on the observation of the dark surface in the corner of the sample. The study shows that the Althoff-Radtke test can
be adapted to determine the tendency for hot cracking of high chromium cast iron. It should however be noted that the test results cannot be
compared with those for other alloys.
With increasing technology development, an increasing emphasis is placed on the precision of products, but cannot be guaranteed without a stable production process. To ensure the stability of the production process, it is necessary to monitor it in detail, find its critical locations and eliminate or at least control it. With such a precise manufacturing method as investment casting, such a process is a must. This paper therefore deals with monitoring the production process of wax models of large turbine blades using infrared thermography. The aim was to evaluate the critical locations of this production and to propose recommendations for their elimination or, at the very least, significant mitigation of their impact on the final quality of the large turbine blade casting.
Inconel 713C alloy belongs to the group of materials with high application potential in the aerospace industry. This nickel alloy has excellent features such as high strength, good surface stability, high creep and corrosion resistance. The paper presents the results of metallographic examinations of a base material and padding welds made by laser beam on the Inconel 713C alloy. The tests were made on precisely cast test plates imitating low - pressure turbine blades dedicated for the aerospace industry. Observations of the macro- and microstructure of the padding welds, heat-affected zone and base material indicate, that the Inconel 713C alloy should be classified as a hard-to-weld material. In the investigated joint, cracking of the material is disclosed mainly in the heat-affected zone and at the melted zone interface, where pad weld crystals formed on partially melted grains. The results show that phases rich with chromium and molybdenum were formed by high temperature during welding process, which was confirmed by EDS analysis of chemical composition.
Cast axes are one of the most numerous categories of bronze products from earlier phases of the Bronze Age found in Poland. They had multiple applications since they were not only used objects such as tools or weapons but also played the prestigious and cult roles.
Investigations of the selected axes from the bronze products treasure of the Bronze Age, found in the territory of Poland, are presented
in the hereby paper. The holder of these findings is the State Archaeological Museum in Warsaw. Metallurgical investigations of axes with bushing were performed in respect of the casting technology and quality of obtained castings. Macroscopic observations allowed to document the remains of the gating system and to assess the range and kind of casting defects. Light microscopy revealed the microstructure character of these relicts. The chemical composition was determined by means of the X-ray fluorescence method with energy dispersion (ED-XRF) and by the scanning electron microscopy with X-ray energy dispersion analysis in micro-areas (SEM-EDS). The shape and dimensions of cores, reproducing inner parts of axes were identified on the basis of the X-ray tomography images. Studies reconstructed production technology of the mould with gating system, determined chemical composition of the applied alloys and casting structures as well as revealed the casting defects being the result of construction and usage of moulds and cores.
This article presents a computer system for the identification of casting defects using the methodology of Case-Based Reasoning. The
system is a decision support tool in the diagnosis of defects in castings and is designed for small and medium-sized plants, where it is not
possible to take advantage of multi-criteria data. Without access to complete process data, the diagnosis of casting defects requires the use
of methods which process the information based on the experience and observations of a technologist responsible for the inspection of
ready castings. The problem, known and studied for a long time, was decided to be solved with a computer system using a CBR (CaseBased
Reasoning) methodology. The CBR methodology not only allows using expert knowledge accumulated in the implementation
phase, but also provides the system with an opportunity to "learn" by collecting new cases solved earlier by this system. The authors
present a solution to the system of inference based on the accumulated cases, in which the main principle of operation is searching for
similarities between the cases observed and cases stored in the knowledge base.
The validation of each simulation code used in foundry domain requires individual approach due to its specificity. This validation can by
elaborated on the basis of experimental results or in particular cases by comparison the simulation results from different codes. The article
concerns the influence of grey cast iron density curve and different forms of solid fraction curve Fs=f(T) on the formation of shrinkage
discontinuities. Solid fraction curves applying Newtonian Thermal Analysis (NTA) were estimated. The experimental and numerical
simulation tests were performed on the castings, which were made with Derivative Thermal Analysis (DerTA) standard cups. The
numerical tests were realized using NovaFlow&Solid (NF&S), ProCast and Vulcan codes. In this work, the coupled influence of both
curves on the dynamics of the shrinkage-expansion phenomena and on shrinkage defects prognosis in grey cast iron castings has been
revealed. The final evaluation of the simulation systems usefulness should be based on validation experiment, preceded by comparing the
simulation results of available systems which are proposed in given technology.
Nowadays, the most popular production method for manufacturing high quality casts of aluminium alloys is the hot and cold chamber die casting. Die casts made of hypereutectoid silumin Silafont 36 AlSi9Mg are used for construction elements in the automotive industry. The influence of the metal input and circulating scrap proportion on porosity and mechanical properties of the cast has been examined and the results have been shown in this article. A little porosity in samples has not influenced the details strength and the addition of the circulating scrap has contributed to the growth of the maximum tensile force. Introducing 80% of the circulating scrap has caused great porosity which led to reduce the strength of the detail. The proportion of 40% of the metal input and 60% of the circulating scrap is a configuration safe for the details quality in terms of porosity and mechanical strength.
The current casting production of castings brings increased demands for surface and internal quality of the castings. Important factors, that influence the quality of casted components, are the materials used for the manufacture of moulds and cores. For the preparation and production of moulds and cores, in order to achieve a low level of casting defects, then it used a high quality input materials, including various types of sands, modified binders, additives, etc. However, even the most expensive raw materials are not a guarantee to achieve the quality of production.
It is always necessary to choose the appropriate combination of input material together with an appropriate proposal for the way of the production, the metallurgical treatment of cast alloy, etc. The aim of this paper is to establish the basic principles for the selection of the base core mixtures components – sands to eliminate defects from the tension, specifically veining. Various silica sand, which are commonly used in foundries of Middle Europe region, were selected and tested.
Presented paper shows the mathematical and numerical approaches for modelling of binary alloy solidification solved by the Finite Element Method (FEM). The phenomenon of shrinkage cavities formation process is included in the numerical model. Multiple macroscopic cavities can be modelled within the single casting volume. Solid, liquid and gaseous phases with different material properties are taken into account during solidification process. Mathematical model uses the differential equation of heat diffusion. Modification of specific heat is used to describe the heat releasing during liquid-solid phase change. Numerical procedure of shrinkage cavities evolution is based on the recognition of non-connected liquid volumes and local shrinkage computation in the each of them. The recognition is done by the selection of sets of interconnected nodes containing liquid phase in the finite element mesh. Original computer program was developed to perform calculation process. Obtained results of temperature and shrinkage cavities distributions are presented and discussed in details.
Production of castings, like any other field of technology is aimed at providing high-quality product, free from defects. One of the main causes of defects in castings is the phenomenon of shrinkage of the casting. This phenomenon causes the formation of shrinkage cavities and porosity in the casting. The major preventive measure is supplementing a shortage of liquid metal. For supplement to be effective, it is necessary to use risers in proper shapes. Usually, the risers are selected on the basis of determination the place of formation of hot-spots in the castings. Although in these places the shrinkage defects are most likely to occur, shape and size of these defects are also affected by other factors. The article describes the original program setting out the shape and location of possible cavities in the casting. In the program is also taken into account the effect of temperature on the change in volume of liquid metal and the resultant differences in the shape and size of formed shrinkage cavities. The aim of the article is to describe the influence that have material properties of the mold on the simulation results.
The mathematical model and numerical simulations of the solidification of a cylindrical shaped casting, which take into account the process of filling the mould cavity by liquid metal and feeding the casting through the riser during its solidification, are presented in the paper. Mutual dependence of thermal and flow phenomena were taken into account because have an essential influence on solidification process. The effect of the riser shape on the effectiveness of feeding of the solidifying casting was determined. In order to obtain the casting without shrinkage defects, an appropriate selection of riser shape was made, which is important for foundry practice. Numerical calculations of the solidification process of system consisting of the casting and the conical or cylindrical riser were carried out. The velocity fields have been obtained from the solution of momentum equations and continuity equation, while temperature fields from solving the equation of heat conductivity containing the convection term. Changes in thermo-physical parameters as a function of temperature were considered. The finite element method (FEM) was used to solve the problem.
The mathematical model and numerical simulations of the solidification of a cylindrical casting, which take into account the process of the mould cavity filling by liquid metal and the feeding of the casting through the conical riser during its solidification, are proposed in the paper. The interdependence of thermal and flow phenomena were taken into account because they have an essential influence on solidification process. The effect of the pouring temperature and pouring velocity of the metal on the solidification kinetics of the casting was determined. In order to obtain the casting without shrinkage defects, an appropriate selection of these parameters was tried, which is important for foundry practice. The velocity fields have been obtained from the solution of Navier-Stokes equations and continuity equation, while temperature fields from solving the equation of heat conductivity containing the convection term. In the solidification modelling the changes in thermo-physical parameters as a function of temperature were considered. The finite element method (FEM) was used to solve the problem.