Applied sciences

Archives of Civil Engineering

Content

Archives of Civil Engineering | 2026 | Vol 72 | No 1

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Abstract

Huge infrastructure such as the dam was categorised as critical infrastructure and should be maintained for continuous operation during its intended lifetime. Over the years, instability due to climate change has become a serious threat to dams and therefore requires regular monitoring of structural integrity. This article provides a comprehensive review of dam safety and structural health monitoring under numerous environmental conditions (e.g. normal conditions, flood and earthquake). Interestingly, this study analyses the impact of climate change on the partial failure and collapse of dams based on historical data. A comparison between monitoring approaches, such as the monitoring method, the type of instrumentation and the method of data analysis, was further discussed to understand the complementarity of each approach. Several future directions were outlined to highlight high-risk scenarios and interesting research areas for dam safety and monitoring to support dam sustainability. This will help to develop effective tools and techniques for accurate maintenance based on the issues at hand. A deeper understanding of the relationship between environmental factors (hydraulic impacts) and structural behavioural changes will greatly benefit the various studies on basic fluidstructure interactions, comprehensive emergency plans under the influence of climate change, reliable methods for dam maintenance and retrofitting, and holistic dam safety monitoring plans (surveillance approaches and disaster preparedness). In short, early detection of dam risks, analysis of expected failure and thorough interventions based on regular monitoring are essential for the sustainability and resilience of dam infrastructure.
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Authors and Affiliations

Nur Azwa Muhamad Bashar
1
ORCID: ORCID
Mohd Remy Rozainy Mohd Arif Zainol
2
ORCID: ORCID
Mohd Sharizal Abdul Aziz
3
ORCID: ORCID
Ahmad Zhafran Ahmad Mazlan
4
Mohd Hafiz Zawawi
5
ORCID: ORCID
Teh Sabariah Abdul Manan
6
ORCID: ORCID
Joanna Gondro
7
ORCID: ORCID

  1. PhD. student, Eng., School of Civil Engineering, Engineering Campus, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Seberang PeraiSelatan, 14300, Penang, Malaysia
  2. Assoc. Prof., PhD., Doctoral supervisor, Eng., School of Civil Engineering, Engineering Campus, Universiti SainsMalaysia, Seberang Perai Selatan, 14300, Penang, Malaysia
  3. Assoc. Prof., PhD., Doctoral Supervisor, Eng., School of Mechanical Engineering, Engineering Campus, Universiti SainsMalaysia, Seberang Perai Selatan, 14300, Penang, Malaysia
  4. PhD., Eng., School of Mechanical Engineering, Engineering Campus, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Seberang PeraiSelatan, 14300, Penang, Malaysia
  5. PhD., Doctoral Supervisor, Eng., Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering, Universiti Tenaga Nasional,43000, Kajang, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia
  6. PDRF research fellow, PhD., Eng., School of Civil Engineering, Engineering Campus, Universiti Sains Malaysia,Seberang Perai Selatan, 14300, Penang, Malaysia
  7. PhD., Faculty of Production Engineering and Materials Technology, Institute of Physics, Czestochowa University ofTechnology, Czestochowa
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Abstract

Depth gradients, which arise from variations in geostress at different strata, lead to rapid alterations in the internal stress state of rocks during blasting operations. These changes contribute to heterogeneities in rock strength and blast resistance, thereby presenting potential risks to engineering safety. To understand the damage and fracture patterns typically observed in granite blasting activities within underground engineering projects, we created a series of rectangular six-hole models using the advanced finite element software ABAQUS. By utilizing the Coupled Eulerian–Lagrangian (CEL) technique, the model distinguished between Eulerian parts, segmented into domains, and Lagrangian elements; the Eulerian domain was designated as air, while the Lagrangian section was characterized by TNT to mimic the shock wave propagation following detonation. This research scrutinizes the geostress conditions of granite across varying depth gradients, elucidates the extent and severity of granite impairment induced by blasting, and furnishes innovative viewpoints and methodologies for examining rock damage mechanisms in blasting engineering.
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Authors and Affiliations

Mingyue Ma
1
ORCID: ORCID
Yajun Liu
2
ORCID: ORCID
Zhihong Duan
3
ORCID: ORCID
Yang Zheng
2
ORCID: ORCID
Fengting Li
2
ORCID: ORCID

  1. PhD., Shandong Boshuo Geotechnical Engineering Design Consulting Co., Ltd., AI. No. 588 Jing Qi Road, Jinan,China
  2. PhD., Shandong University, School of Civil Engineering, Al. No. 17922, Jingshi Road, Jinan, China
  3. PhD., PowerChina Municipal Construction Group Co., Ltd., Al. No. 2 Haitai Development Five, Tianjin, China
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Abstract

The article presents a numerical analysis of the strength of airport concrete slabs (LWS) under dynamic loads during the landing of a heavy fighter aircraft. The study focuses on prestressed concrete slabs with dimensions of 6.0 × 2.0 × 0.14 m, analyzing their behavior under F-14 aircraft landing forces. Using finite element analysis in LS-DYNA software, the complex interaction between aircraft wheel load, concrete slab, and substrate layers was examined. The simulation includes detailed modeling of slab reinforcement, connecting anchors, and the three-layer airport construction. The analysis considers dynamic load factors and actual tire contact surface parameters. The applied material models account for nonlinear concrete behavior (MAT_159) and its interaction with soil (MAT_005). The obtained results provide information about stress distribution, deformation, and potential failure mechanisms, contributing to understanding the response of airport pavement structures under extreme dynamic loads. These studies help in assessing the serviceability and safety margins of existing LWS slab systems at military airports. The applied research methodology also allows for soil mechanics analyses under airport pavements without the need for experimental testing.
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Authors and Affiliations

Krzysztof Kosiuczenko
1
ORCID: ORCID

  1. 1PhD., Eng., Military Institute of Armour and Automotive Technology, ul. Okuniewska 1, 05-070 Sulejowek, Poland
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Abstract

The large-area facilities are mostly based on the same materials and construction technologies. However, the larger the roof area, the more difficult it is to ensure the proper functioning of the emergency roof drainage system, which is most often implemented by means of emergency roof overflows. The problem is confirmed by at least several construction disasters caused by sudden and intense rainfall that have occurred in the last 5 years. The paper refers to the method of calculating the design rainfall intensity, as well as the definition of emergency roof drainage available in the literature. The effect of deflection of the structure from individual load cases, including standard loads, as well as from rainwater load in several variants, depending on the assumed snow load zone, is presented on the basis of a sample structure. The calculations show that structures with variable spans are particularly susceptible to the accumulation of rainwater. Due to the complexity of the phenomenon, the author does not provide a clear solution to the problem, but recommends the use of a double pipe emergency roof drainage system in such structures, rather than relying solely on roof overflows.
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Authors and Affiliations

Krzysztof Wierzbicki
1
ORCID: ORCID

  1. PhD., Eng., West Pomeranian University of Technology, Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering,al. Piastow 17, 70-310 Szczecin, Poland
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Abstract

Friction is one of the fundamental factors describing the functioning of mechanical systems, which is why it has been the subject of extensive scientific research for years. Despite the undoubted progress in research, modeling friction processes is still an attractive scientific challenge. The article presents a method of modeling friction (kinetic and static, including the so-called “stick-slip") occurring in discrete mechanical systems. A characteristic feature of the method is the use of special luz(...) and tar(...) projections together with their original mathematical apparatus, thanks to which the friction process models are transparent, allow for parametric reduction and adapted to standard numerical procedures used in simulation. The author’s method through its application in the synthesis of an unpublished stick-slip model for a three-element system with two friction pairs. The determined model can be useful in modeling layered structures. It should be noted that analyses of stick-slip processes in layered structures can occur in the problems of soil and building mechanics.
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Authors and Affiliations

Dariusz Żardecki
1
ORCID: ORCID

  1. 1DSc., PhD., Eng., Military University of Technology, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, ul. Gen. SylwestraKaliskiego 2, 00-908 Warsaw, Poland
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Abstract

The research aimed to develop, construct, and evaluate a device for measuring voltage dynamics in wet circuits. This involved assessing fluctuating voltage levels at varying depths within specialized columns, revealing the intricate interplay between probing equipment and aquatic environments. Regression analysis highlighted a nuanced correlationcm between water levels and electrode voltage, particularly within the initial 10 cm of immersion. Key outcomes included the examination of materials suitable for sensor construction, such as crusted gold and cuprum, and the refinement of methodologies for electrode measurement and data transmission to central systems, with a focus on open channels. Utilizing these insights, a wet circuit was engineered to enhance the operational efficiency of sewage systems, allowing real-time monitoring of water quality and leak detection. The water level measurement device holds significant potential for widespread adoption in municipal facilities, offering streamlined monitoring capabilities and aiding in the optimization of sewage system integrity and functionality, especially in confined channels serving sewage and stormwater systems.
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Authors and Affiliations

Tomasz Sionkowski
1
ORCID: ORCID
Wiktor Halecki
2
ORCID: ORCID
Krzysztof Chmielowski
3
ORCID: ORCID

  1. PhD., Eng., Grundfos Pompy Ltd., Klonowa Street 23, 62-081 Przezmierowo, Poland
  2. PhD., Eng., Institute of Technology and Life Sciences - National Research Institute, Falenty, Al. Hrabska 3, 05-090Raszyn, Poland
  3. 3Prof., DSc., PhD., Eng., AGH University of Science and Technology, Department of Natural Gas Engineering, Faculty of Drilling, Oil and Gas, Al. A. Mickiewicza 30, 30-059 Cracow, Poland
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Abstract

Construction quality, durability and service life of China Railway Track System III (CRTS III) is influenced by the performance of the self-compacting concrete (SCC) used for filling layer. In this paper, the effect of unit water consumption, sand ratio and water reducer components on working performance of SCC filling layer is studied by laboratory and field tests. Appropriate mix proportion parameters are obtained. The results indicate that unit water consumption can significantly improve the in-service performance of SCC. However, it is essential to consider both the dosage of water-reducing agents and the unit water consumption to ensure the stability of the mixture. Sand ratio of SCC is between 49% and 52% used for filling layer, which have excellent flowability and stability. It is recommended that the content of the defoamer should be 3/1 000, and the content of the air-entraining agent should be 5/1000. These research results will play an important role in improving the construction quality of SCC filling layer.
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Authors and Affiliations

Jingyi Zhang
1
ORCID: ORCID
He Liu
2
ORCID: ORCID
Ji Zhang
3
ORCID: ORCID

  1. M. Eng., Shenyang Urban Construction University, School of Civil Engineering, No.380 Bai Ta Road, Hunnan
  2. PhD., Eng., Shenyang Jianzhu University, School of Transportation and Geomatics Engineering, No. 25 HunnanZhong Road, Hunnan District, Shenyang, Liao Ning, 110168, China
  3. M. Eng., Liaoning New Development Highway Technology Maintenance Co., LTD, Shenyang, Liaoning, 110000, China
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Abstract

With the rapid development of China’s transportation industry, the treatment of high fill slopes in mountainous regions urgently needs to be addressed. There were many factors that contribute to slope instability, but most slope failures are caused by ineffective treatment of the fill soil, leading to poor internal drainage and the formation of weak soil layers in the slope, which are prone to large deformation and instability. An analysis was conducted on a high fill slope at an airport in Sichuan before and after reinforcement, monitoring the slope’s deformation and displacement. Additionally, FLAC3D finite element simulation software was used to perform a simulation analysis under the most unfavorable conditions. By comparing the analysis results with the actual engineering project, it was found that using a comprehensive treatment method to support the high fill slope significantly improves its stability, providing a reference for similar projects in the future.
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Authors and Affiliations

Jianpei Li
1
ORCID: ORCID
Dong Yang
2
ORCID: ORCID
Yuanyuan Li
2
ORCID: ORCID

  1. B.Sc., Henan Quality Institute, Pingdingshan, 467000, China
  2. MSc., Henan Quality Institute, Pingdingshan, 467000, China
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Abstract

The stabilization of cohesive soils intended for use in water-retaining embankments with quicklime is not a popular technology in the hydrotechnical industry. This is associated with the potential for lime to leach from the soil structure, thereby reducing the strength of the material used. An experiment was designed and carried out to force water to flow through cohesive soil compacted at the optimum moisture content. The strength parameters of the soil were determined on the basis of a test in a large-scale direct shear apparatus. Even in its natural form, the tested soil was characterized by high cohesion (average 103.47 kPa) and a high internal friction angle (average 27.05◦). As a result of water filtration, a slight average increase in these parameters was observed, by 13.01% (cohesion) and 11.87% (internal friction angle). Between 2.75 and 8.0 dm3 of water was filtered through the individual samples, and the lime concentrations were low, between 53.7 and 98.9 mg/dm3. After the soil was stabilized with lime, both analysed parameters increased – cohesion averaged 148.98 kPa and internal friction angle 33.53◦. As a result of water filtration through the stabilized soil, the increase in cohesion was inhibited and the average internal friction angle decreased by 16.49%. Between 3.05 and 11.5 dm3 of water was filtered through the individual samples, and the lime concentrations ranged between 380.8 and 915.4 mg/dm3. No correlation was found between the amount of lime leached and the maximum shear strength values obtained for a given soil sample. Despite the high water pressure (4.5 meters of water gauge), long filtration time (40 days), and short period between compaction and the start of flow (approx. 3 days), the tests did not confirm any risk of a significant reduction in the strength parameters of the lime-stabilized soil as a result of water impact.
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Authors and Affiliations

Maksymilian Połomski
1 2
ORCID: ORCID
Mirosław Wiatkowski
3
ORCID: ORCID

  1. M.Sc., PhD student, Institute of Environmental Engineering, Wroclaw University of Environmental and LifeSciences, pl. Grunwaldzki 24, 50-363 Wroclaw, Poland
  2. State Water Holding Polish Waters – Regional Water ManagementAuthority in Wroclaw, Norwida 34, 50-950 Wroclaw, Poland
  3. Prof., DSc., PhD., Eng., Institute of Environmental Engineering, Wroclaw University of Environmental andLife Sciences, pl. Grunwaldzki 24, 50-363 Wrocław, Poland
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Abstract

The cloud image method is widely used in the result vulnerability analysis because of its convenient calculation. However, there are some problems in the cloud image method, such as the engineering demand parameter (EDP) does not meet the lognormal distribution, the seismic intensity index ln(IM) does not meet the linear relationship with the engineering demand parameter (ln(EDP)), and the residual does not meet the normal distribution. Therefore, this paper introduces two methods of Box–Cox transform and 3-sigma criterion, and combines Latin hypercube sampling to propose a vulnerability analysis method that not only maintains the advantages of less analysis times of the cloud image method but also improves the normality of ln(EDP), the correlation between independent variables and dependent variables and the normality of residuals of cloud image method. Finally, taking a continuous beam bridge as an example, the time history analysis of the whole bridge model is carried out to verify whether the variables before and after the correction meet the normal distribution, and the effectiveness of the improved method is evaluated; By establishing the vulnerability curve of the cloud image method and the improved method, the cloud image method and the improved method are evaluated. The results show that the introduction of Box–Cox transformation and 3-sigma criterion can improve the linearity and normality of the probabilistic seismic demand model, and ensure the accuracy of the vulnerability calculation results. Using the Latin hypercube sampling method to consider the uncertainty of the structure can make the vulnerability results more realistic.
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Authors and Affiliations

Ao Lu
1
ORCID: ORCID
Chunhua Zhang
1
ORCID: ORCID
Fang Huang
2
ORCID: ORCID
Shuang Wang
3
ORCID: ORCID
Ying Liu
4
ORCID: ORCID
Zi Wu
4
ORCID: ORCID

  1. Eng., CCCC Second Highway Consultants Co., Ltd., Chuangye Road, 430056 Wuhan, China
  2. Associate Prof, Naval University of Engineering, Wuhan 430033, China,
  3. Eng., Wuhan Longfang Engineering Technology Co., Ltd., Wuhan, Hubei, 430034, China
  4. Eng., CCCC Second Highway Consultants Co., Ltd., Wuhan 430056, China
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Abstract

To study the modification mechanism of graphene/rubber composite-modified asphalt, the blending system of graphene, rubber, and asphalt was studied by molecular dynamics simulation. The molecular models of asphalt, rubber asphalt, and graphene/rubber composite-modified asphalt were constructed by molecular dynamics software. The intermolecular binding energy, radial distribution function, and mechanical properties of the three asphalt systems were studied. The results showed that the addition of graphene increased the binding energy between rubber and light components of asphalt, promoted the absorption of light components of rubber, improved the binding stability of rubber and resin, and improved the compatibility of rubber and asphalt. Graphene can weaken the agglomeration behavior of asphaltene and rubber, and promote light components to penetrate and fill the agglomeration space between asphaltene, which improves the overall stability of the asphaltene system. Graphene promoted the swelling development of rubber and made rubber form a stable spatial grid structure in the asphalt, thus contributing to the elastic modulus, bulk modulus, and shear modulus of graphene/rubber and asphalt blending system compared to the matrix asphalt has a greater enhancement.
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Authors and Affiliations

Shaobo Huo
1
ORCID: ORCID
Bo Chen
1
ORCID: ORCID
Yu Lei
2
ORCID: ORCID

  1. Eng., CCCC-SHEC Engineering Testing Technology Co. Ltd., Xi’an, 710065, China
  2. Eng., CCCC Second Highway Engineering Co., Ltd., Xi’an, 710065, China
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Abstract

The water-filled caves are extremely detrimental to the stability of tunnel lining structure under the action of local high water pressures. In this paper, numerous tunnel models subjected to water pressures with different action conditions were established based on FLAC3D software. The influences of the magnitude, range, and action location of local water pressures on the internal force and deformation properties, and stability of tunnel lining structure were obtained by analyzing the bending moment and axial force, horizontal and vertical displacements, and safety factor. The results show that the bending moment and axial force, and displacement of tunnel lining structure are overall symmetrically distributed when water pressures act on tunnel vault. The maximum internal force and displacement basically occur on tunnel vault and increase significantly with the increase of water pressure and its action range; while the internal force and displacement values in other locations increase slightly with different amplitudes. The tunnel vault is the most unfavorable location of lining structure. When water pressures act on left arch waist, left wall, and left arch foot, the internal forces and displacements are generally in a biased state, with a distribution pattern of larger on left side and smaller on right side. The responses of internal force and displacement at action locations of water pressure are the most rapid and maximum, and the influence degree of water pressure gradually decreases with increasing distance. Overall, the farther away from the action locations of water pressure, the greater the safety factor of tunnel structure.
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Authors and Affiliations

Chaojie Miao
1
ORCID: ORCID
Zonglong Zhang
2
ORCID: ORCID
Zhuoxin Liu
3
ORCID: ORCID
Xuebin Hu
4
ORCID: ORCID
Yehao Wang
5
ORCID: ORCID
Liang Cheng
6
Wenfeng Zhang
7
ORCID: ORCID

  1. Eng., Department of Technical Contract, Chongqing Yuxiang Double-line Expressway Co. Ltd., No. 66 Yinshan Road, Yubei District, Chongqing, China
  2. Eng., Institute of Tunnel and Underground Engineering, China Merchants Chongqing Communications Technology Research & Design Institute Co., Ltd., No. 33 Xuefu Avenue, Nan’an District, Chongqing, China
  3. Eng., None, Chongqing Yuxiang Double-line Expressway Co. Ltd., No. 66 Yinshan Road, Yubei District, Chongqing, China,
  4. Prof., Institute of Tunnel and Underground Engineering, China Merchants Chongqing Communications Technology Research & Design Institute Co., Ltd., No. 33 Xuefu Avenue, Nan’an District, Chongqing, China
  5. Prof., Department of Technical Contract, Chongqing Yuxiang Double-line Expressway Co. Ltd., No. 66 Yinshan Road, Yubei District, Chongqing, China
  6. Prof., DSc., Institute of Tunnel and Underground Engineering, China Merchants Chongqing CommunicationsTechnology Research & Design Institute Co., Ltd., No. 33 Xuefu Avenue, Nan’an District, Chongqing, China,
  7. DSc., Eng., Department of Technical Contract, Chongqing Yuxiang Double-line Expressway Co. Ltd., No. 66 Yinshan Road, Yubei District, Chongqing, China
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Abstract

With the increasingly close connection between cities and the rapid development of large highways, this has led to the proportion of traffic noise exceeding the standard section in most cities up to 30% or more, traffic noise pollution has seriously affected people’s quality of life, becoming one of the key issues of current urban pollution. In this study, for the noise reduction characteristics of porous drainage asphalt mixture, the rutting plate specimens and Marshall standard specimens with different gradation, thickness, void ratio and particle size were compared and tested by Marshall method. The test results show that the peak absorption coefficient of Porous Asphalt Concrete 13 (PAC-13) is 0.67, the average absorption coefficient is 0.3, and the noise reduction coefficient is 0.32. From the perspective of noise reduction coefficient, the value of PAC-13 is 2.46 times that of Asphalt Concrete 13(AC-13) and 1.88 times that of Stone Mastic Asphalt 13 (SMA-13). Its comprehensive noise reduction and sound absorption ability is far better than SMA-13 and AC-13. The smaller the particle size of the PAC specimen, the stronger its sound absorption capacity. The test results are in line with expectations and have some reference value for the study of urban noise pollution. The study conducted in-depth research on the noise reduction performance of commonly used asphalt materials in recent years, which provided strong support for pavement laying and urban noise reduction research.
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Authors and Affiliations

Lin Qi
1
ORCID: ORCID
Jiahao Liu
2
ORCID: ORCID
Ziang Liu
2
ORCID: ORCID

  1. Associate Prof., PhD., Eng., School of Materials Science and Engineering, Chang’an University, Xi’an 710064, China
  2. MSc., School of Materials Science and Engineering, Chang’an University, Xi’an 710064, China
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Abstract

The paper analyses the effect of wind load on the dynamic responses of two domes. This is not a standard design situation, therefore static analysis alone is not sufficient. The main objective of this paper is to compare the results obtained from the application of dynamic equilibrium equations and those obtained from static analysis. The authors wanted to determine the sensitivity of the domes to the wind load. Inertial forces and dynamic equilibrium equations were taken into account in the calculations. The integration of the equations of motion was performed using the unconditionally stable version of Newmark’s method. Numerical calculations were performed using the author’s MES3D program. Two patterns and two heights of single-layer steel domes were considered, i.e. a low Schwedler dome and a high geodesic dome. The structural stability and damping capacity of the domes were compared. The analysis includes a modal study to determine the natural frequencies and their corresponding vibration modes. Then, the displacements and accelerations of the keystone of both domes were assessed.
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Authors and Affiliations

Urszula Radoń
1
ORCID: ORCID
Waldemar Szaniec
2
ORCID: ORCID
Urszula Pawlak
2
ORCID: ORCID
Paweł Zabojszcza
2
ORCID: ORCID

  1. Prof., Kielce University of Technology, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Kielce, Poland
  2. DSc., Kielce University of Technology, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Kielce, Poland
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Abstract

Urban public space, as a core component of the urban, is an important carrier for the residents’ quality of life, social interaction and cultural inheritance. With the deepening of urbanization, urban public space is facing unprecedented challenges, including aging space, single function, environmental degradation, and mismatch with residents’ needs, etc. This paper comprehensively discusses the application of digital twin technology in urban public space renewal, and systematically analyzes its core role in enhancing the function of public space, promoting the optimization of resource allocation, and reinforcing the ability of predictive analysis from the theoretical framework to specific countermeasures. Through the introduction of genetic algorithm and ARIMA model, the technical support of complex resource allocation and future trend prediction is shown; and the successful application and significant effect of digital twin technology in actual projects are demonstrated with the examples of The Bund in Shanghai and Marina Bay Gardens in Singapore. In addition, a detailed assessment of data security, technical compatibility, public participation and cost-effectiveness is made, and targeted countermeasures and recommendations are proposed.
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Authors and Affiliations

Xintong Li
1
ORCID: ORCID
Yixuan Tang
2
ORCID: ORCID
Yiyuan Zhao
1
ORCID: ORCID

  1. MSc., School of Architecture, Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology, Huaqing College, Xi’an 710043, China
  2. MSc., School of Art, Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology, Huaqing College, Xi’an 710043, China
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Abstract

This study explores a variety of mountain settlements and stress-strain problems caused by tunnels passing through mountain fault zones. Based on the research background of the Lianfeng Mountain tunnel project, the expansion pressure of the rock mass was introduced through the Kastner formula using ABAQUS finite element simulation software. A mountain structure model was established, and the structural stress state of the mountain after tunnel excavation and the stability law of the secondary lining were studied. The results showed that for the double-layer steel frame, the inner steel frame of the tunnel bore more stress. In the normal section, the settlement of the tunnel vault was similar to the amount of bottom uplift. However, in the broken section, the settlement of the vault was significantly greater than the amount of bottom uplift. The excavation of the second tunnel during the construction of the double tunnel caused the strain in the first tunnel to increase. This study provides a theoretical reference for the safety analysis of similar mountain tunnels.
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Authors and Affiliations

Lizhi Cheng
1
ORCID: ORCID
Zhiquan Yang
2
ORCID: ORCID
Ping Zhao
3
ORCID: ORCID
Yajun Liu
4
ORCID: ORCID
Fengting Li
5
ORCID: ORCID

  1. PhD., Faculty of Public Safety and Emergency Management, Kunming University of Science and Technology,Kunming 650093, China
  2. Prof., PhD., Faculty of Public Safety and Emergency Management, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Kunming 650093, China
  3. PhD., Shandong Provincial Communications Planning and Design Institute Group Co., Ltd., Jinan 250000, China
  4. PhD., School of Civil Engineering, Shandong University, Jinan
  5. MSc., School of Civil Engineering, Shandong University, Jinan,
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Abstract

Improper disposal of foundation pit dewatering can cause engineering problems such as uneven settlement, slope instability, quicksand, piping, etc., and pose a huge threat to construction safety. Therefore, it is necessary to optimize the design of foundation pit dewatering engineering. This paper introduces a simulation-optimization model for this problem, establishes a groundwater flow simulation model using MODFLOW-2005 as a platform, and uses LGR local grid densification technology to densify the dewatering area of foundation pits with different curtain depths. Under the premise of ensuring construction safety, the minimum cost is the objective function, and GWM-2005 is used to solve the optimization model of the foundation pit engineering example. The results show that with the increase of the curtain depth, the optimal design can effectively reduce the number of pumping wells and the total amount of pumping water in the foundation pit dewatering project, reasonably optimize the layout of the pumping well position, significantly improve the safety of foundation pit construction, effectively reduce the impact of foundation pit dewatering project on the surrounding geological environment, and effectively control the land subsidence problem in the precipitation process.
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Authors and Affiliations

Xiaofeng Li
1
ORCID: ORCID
Binghua Wang
1
ORCID: ORCID
Jianhang Xu
2
ORCID: ORCID
Xianmeng Zhang
3
ORCID: ORCID

  1. M.E., Eng., Nanning Rail Transit Construction Co., Ltd., Nanning, China
  2. M.E., Eng., School of Safety Engineering and Emergency Management, Shijiazhuang Tiedao University, Shijiazhuang,China
  3. PhD., Eng., School of Safety Engineering and Emergency Management, Shijiazhuang Tiedao University, Shijiazhuang,China
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Abstract

The majority of existing methodologies for tunnel assessment and classification are rooted in empirical construction practices. Traditionally, these approaches ascertain the magnitude of a tunnel’s scale by relying on a solitary parameter, such as its length or cross-sectional dimensions, often neglecting the critical role of environmental factors. This oversight significantly restricts the methods’ broader utility. Hence, there is a pressing need to innovate a comprehensive tunnel assessment and grading framework that seamlessly incorporates both geological and environmental parameters, thereby broadening its applicative horizons. To achieve a more nuanced understanding of tunnel scales, an encompassing classification paradigm has been conceived. This paradigm takes into account a spectrum of six critical determinants: tunnel length, cross-sectional dimensions, the geological influence coefficient, the structural importance of the tunnel, the gradient of the tunnel’s slope, and the net distance between interconnected tunnels. A sophisticated formula has been devised to calculate the total volume of excavation, with geological considerations primarily hinged on the tunnel’s length and cross-sectional dimensions. Additionally, the formula is calibrated to integrate other pivotal factors, notably environmental impacts. Upon this robust foundation, a novel tunnel assessment and classification protocol has been articulated. This protocol harmoniously blends geological and environmental attributes with pragmatic considerations. A case study, focusing on a quintessential tunnel, has been meticulously conducted, yielding results that substantiate the method’s efficacy and reliability. The research’s deliverables offer a substantive benchmark for tunnel assessments and classifications within contexts characterized by intricate environmental dynamics.
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Authors and Affiliations

Wei Li
1
ORCID: ORCID
Wei Huang
2 3

  1. Prof., DSc., PhD., Eng., 1) State Key Laboratory of Intelligent Construction and Healthy Operation and Maintenanceof Deep Underground Engineering, China University of Mining and Technology, Jiangsu Xuzhou 221116, China
  2. Yunlong Lake Laboratory of Deep Underground Science and Engineering, Jiangsu Xuzhou 221116, China
  3. DSc., PhD., Eng., China Jiliang University, College of Energy Environment and Safety Engineering, No. 258, XueyuanStreet, Qiantang District, Hangzhou, China
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Abstract

Abstract: To study the uniaxial compression performance of rock masses with regular dentate discontinuities, uniaxial compression tests and Particle Flow Code (PFC) numerical simulation are conducted on cement mortar specimens, and the combined effects of dip angle ��, undulation angle ��, and the number of undulating structures n of cracks on the compressive strength and crack propagation in the specimens are studied. The experimental and numerical simulation results showed that when n and �� remain unchanged, the uniaxial compressive strength of the specimens peaks at a �� of 90◦. When �� and �� remain unchanged, the compressive strength of the specimens with regular dentate discontinuities decreases with an increase in n. When n and �� remain unchanged, the compressive strength of the rock mass specimens containing dentate discontinuity decreases with an increase in ��. Almost all of the new cracks in the specimens initiate at the tip of the prefabricated cracks, and the failure characteristics of the specimens are mainly tensile fractures accompanied by a few shear fractures. When �� and n remain unchanged, and �� is 45◦–135◦, the cracks in the dentate discontinuous rock mass propagate straight along the end of the prefabricated crack and finally vertically. In addition, when �� and n remain unchanged, the crack propagation of rock mass with �� ≤ 60◦ is abundant. Moreover, when �� and �� remain unchanged and �� < 4, the crack propagation is abundant, and shear cracks are initiated at the edge of the specimens far from the prefabricated crack.
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Authors and Affiliations

Liangxiao Xiong
1
ORCID: ORCID
Suming Hu
2
ORCID: ORCID
Maolin Xue
3
ORCID: ORCID
Zhongyuan Xu
4
ORCID: ORCID

  1. Associate Prof., PhD., Eng., School of Civil Engineering and Architecture, East China Jiaotong University, Nanchang 330013, China
  2. Eng., School of Civil Engineering and Architecture, East China Jiaotong University, Nanchang 330013, China
  3. Eng., China Construction Eighth Engineering Division Corp. Ltd., Southwest Branch, Chengdu 610059, China
  4. PhD, Faculty of Geosciences and Environmental Engineering, Southwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu 611756,China
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Abstract

Recently, geopolymers, a type of inorganic non-metallic cementitious materials, have attracted considerable attention as an alternative to ordinary Portland cement (OPC) and as an effective pathway to mitigate energy consumption and minimize CO2 emissions. The paper proposes a method of geopolymer design to achieve best mechanical properties of the developed material from the civil engineering perspective. Using a ternary plot, the authors selected specific proportions of geopolymer ingredients which predetermine such properties as high workability, high compressive and flexural strength. In the first stage of the research, a mixture of sand, fly ash, and alkaline activators were used to initiate the polymerization process which allowed to form specimens designated for further tests. The promising properties of geopolymers and the lack of access to OPC on the Moon have led to the consideration of using geopolymers as a building material in the construction of future extraterrestrial bases. In the second stage, simulant of the Moon regolith was utilized. The achieved results justify the claim that the proposed formulation method of geopolymers, designed for civil engineering applications, is useful both for terrestrial and extraterrestrial applications.
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Authors and Affiliations

Janusz Kobaka
1 2
ORCID: ORCID
Jacek Katzer
3
ORCID: ORCID
Alberto Gallina
4
ORCID: ORCID
Karol Seweryn
5
ORCID: ORCID

  1. PhD., Eng., AGH University of Krakow, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and Robotics, al. Adama Mickiewicza30, 30-059 Cracow, Poland
  2. University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Faculty of Geoengineering, ul. Michała Oczapowskiego 2, 10-719 Olsztyn, Poland
  3. Associated Professor, PhD., Eng., University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Faculty of Geoengineering, ul. Michała Oczapowskiego 2, 10-719 Olsztyn, Poland
  4. Associated Professor, PhD., Eng., AGH University of Krakow, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and Robotics, al. Adama Mickiewicza 30, 30-059 Cracow, Poland
  5. Associated Professor, PhD., Eng., Space Research Centre of the Polish Academy of Sciences (CBK PAN), ul. Bartycka 18A, 00-716 Warsaw
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Abstract

Alkali injection treatment is a key method for stabilizing surrounding rock containing H2S. To examine the deformation of surrounding rock with and without coal seams under different excavation methods and Alkali injection treatments, the finite difference method for single-hole Alkali injection, double-side-wall excavation, and three-bench excavation is simulated. The results indicate that, under the same excavation method, compared with no Alkali injection, the displacement of the vault increases by 23.37% to 24.33% for a 3% Alkali concentration and by 34.55% to 42.70% for a 5% concentration. The horizontal convergence of side walls increases by 18.20% to 25.53% for a 3% Alkali treatment and by 46.20% to 61.08% for a 5% Alkali treatment. When two coal seams tilt through the working face, the deformation of the lower layer is more significant than that of the upper. The greatest deformation occurs at the intersection of the lower layer and the excavation line. Under different Alkali injections, compared with the three-bench excavation method, the vault settlement of the double-side-wall excavation method decreases by 7.65% to 11.37% and the horizontal convergence of sidewalls decreases by 22.80% to 72.27%. When the surrounding rock contains coal seams and is treated with Alkali injection, it is recommended to use the double-sided excavation method.
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Authors and Affiliations

Xiaoqing Suo
1
ORCID: ORCID
Zhi Wang
2
ORCID: ORCID
Xuefu Zhang
3 4
ORCID: ORCID
Dan Qiao
5
ORCID: ORCID
Yuanfu Zhou
3 4
ORCID: ORCID

  1. PhD., School of Civil Engineering, Chongqing Jiaotong University, Chongqing, 400074, China,
  2. PhD., Beijing ZhongjiaoQiaoyu Technology Co., Ltd., Beijing, 100102, China
  3. Prof., School of Civil Engineering, Chongqing Jiaotong University, Chongqing, 400074, China
  4. Institute ofFuture Civil Engineering Science and Technology, Chongqing Jiaotong University, Chongqing, 400074, China,
  5. Associate Prof., School of Transportation and Municipal Engineering, Chongqing Jianzhu College, Chongqing,400072, China
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Abstract

This paper provides a brief introduction to building integrated photovoltaic (BIPV). It utilized a particle swarm algorithm to optimize the arrangement scheme of the photovoltaic array on a concrete flat roof. Furthermore, the performance of the particle swarm algorithm was improved through a genetic algorithm (GA). Subsequently, an experimental analysis was conducted using an office building in a joint salinization factory in Henan Province. First, the effectiveness of the building energy model constructed using PKPM-Energy and Daysim software was validated. Then, a comparison was made between the GA, the particle swarm algorithm, and the improved particle swarm algorithm. The results indicated that the building energy consumption model constructed by the simulation software calculated the building’s energy consumption effectively, which was used to guide the optimization algorithm. All three optimization algorithms successfully optimized the initial scheme. Moreover, the improved particle swarm algorithm exhibited the best optimization performance among the three algorithms.
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Authors and Affiliations

Yan Wang
1
ORCID: ORCID
Ruoxi Chen
2
ORCID: ORCID
Xiaofei Zhu
2
ORCID: ORCID

  1. MSc., School of Architecture and Urban Planning, Henan University of Urban Construction, Pingdingshan, Henan467036, China
  2. MSc., School of Architecture and Urban Planning, Henan University of Urban Construction, Pingdingshan, Henan 467036, China
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Abstract

The paper presents the general characteristics and design of weighing systems for vehicles in motion. A number of problems and limitations that accompany these systems on the way to achieving full automation of the weighing process at the desired level of accuracy are pointed out. The procedure and construction of preselection systems are discussed, and the mechanism of detailed control at the static control point is presented. Attention is drawn to the use of the WiFi standard for data transmission from the system to the control point, with a discussion on the associated limitations and risks. An alternative solution is proposed, using LoRa standard devices, employed in LoRaWAN wireless sensor networks, to transmit data from the station. An own minimum data set for identifying an overloaded vehicle is defined. Based on this, a weighing system emulator was developed, and field measurements were conducted to evaluate the feasibility of using LoRa devices.
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Authors and Affiliations

Mariusz Rychlicki
1
ORCID: ORCID
Zbigniew Kasprzyk
2
ORCID: ORCID
Tomasz Kamiński
3
ORCID: ORCID

  1. PhD.,Warsaw University of Technology, Faculty of Transport, Division of Air Transport Engineering and Teleinformatics,75 Koszykowa St., 00-662 Warsaw, Poland
  2. PhD.,Warsaw University of Technology, Faculty of Transport, Division of Air Transport Engineering and Teleinformatics, 75 Koszykowa St., 00-662 Warsaw, Poland,
  3. Prof., DSc., PhD., Eng., Road and Bridge Research Institute, Management Systems and Telematics Division, 1 Instytutowa St., 03-302 Warsaw, Poland
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Abstract

To evaluate the application degree of the prefabricated steel structure technology in Gathering Station, particularly in small-scale permanent buildings for comprehensive duty rooms and integrated warehouses in the oil and gas field, an evaluation system for the applicability indicators of prefabricated steel structure technology is established from four perspectives: economic factors, environmental factors, social factors, and technical factors. The unascertained measure theory is introduced in this evaluation system. The G1-entropy weight method is utilized to calculate the combined weight of each indicator, and the applicability level of prefabricated steel structure in the gathering and transmission station is quantified and evaluated using the unascertained measure function, ensuring a scientific and effective determination of the applicability level. Finally, an analysis example is presented, focusing on a prefabricated steel structure shift apartment project in Guangyuan. The application study of this engineering example demonstrates that the unascertained measure model can be used to evaluate the applicability level. The evaluation results align with the actual situation, thus verifying the reliability and practicality of the aforementioned applicability degree evaluation method. Furthermore, it provides a reference for the application of prefabricated steel structure technology in similar scenarios.
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Authors and Affiliations

Xin Ye
1
ORCID: ORCID
Huan He
2
ORCID: ORCID
Jin Chen
3
ORCID: ORCID
Chenqian Zhang
3
ORCID: ORCID
Song Liu
4
ORCID: ORCID
Pengfei Liao
4
ORCID: ORCID
Jimao Dai
5
ORCID: ORCID
Xinxia Peng
6
ORCID: ORCID

  1. B. Man., Research Institute of Gathering and Transportation Engineering Technology, PetroChina Southwest Oil andGasfield Company, Chengdu 610041, China
  2. A. Eng., Research Institute of Gathering and Transportation Engineering Technology, PetroChina Southwest Oil andGasfield Company, Chengdu 610041, China
  3. M. Eng., Research Institute of Gathering and Transportation Engineering Technology, PetroChina Southwest Oil and Gasfield Company, Chengdu 610041, China
  4. B. Eng., PetroChina Southwest Oil and Gasfield Company, Chengdu 610041, China
  5. B. Eng., Research Institute of Gathering and Transportation Engineering Technology, PetroChina Southwest Oil and Gasfield Company, Chengdu 61004
  6. B. Eng., Shunan Division, PetroChina Southwest Oil and Gasfield Company, LuZhou 646000, China
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Abstract

Due to the continuous rise of urban underground space development, there has been an increasing number of deep excavation project in recent years, in China. The complexity of hydrogeological conditions and surrounding environment makes it difficult to calculate the deformation of excavation wall caused by deep excavation. Based on the monitoring data during the entire deep excavation process, four datadriven machine-learning algorithms were developed and evaluated in this study to predict deep horizontal displacement (DHD) of excavation wall considering the excavation process and spatial effect. The results showed that the XGBoost algorithm has the best performance, with an RMSE of 2.3397, an MAE of 1.5732 and ��2 of 0.9088. Furthermore, it has higher accuracy in predicting the DHD at the corners, followed by the deformation caused by excavation stage 2. It can be seen that the machine-learning algorithms can be a potential tool for predicting DHD caused by deep excavation in practical engineering.
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Authors and Affiliations

Yujun Guo
1
ORCID: ORCID
Xu Yang
2
ORCID: ORCID
Yansheng Deng
3
ORCID: ORCID

  1. MSc., Eng., The First Geological Brigade of Jiangsu Geological Bureau, Nanjing, 210041, China
  2. MSc., Sen. Eng., The First Geological Brigade of Jiangsu Geological Bureau, Nanjing, 210041, China
  3. PhD., Lecturer, School of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Zhejiang University of Science and Technology,Hangzhou, 310023, China
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Abstract

This paper investigates the impact of rotation speed on the internal stresses of prestressed concrete (PC) girder bridges constructed using swivel method. A numerical model is established to analyze the bridge’s structural response under varying rotary speeds. The results reveal a positive correlation between the escalation of angular velocity and the magnification of concrete stresses, which are most pronounced at the top slab of the PC box girder near the pier. The stress of the PC girder at the selected cross-sections increases by 527% when the angular velocity goes from 0.02 rad/min to 0.05 rad/min. During the rotation acceleration phase, heightened stress concentrations are observed in the main girder and the underlying pier. Comparatively small stresses are achieved across the bridge under an angular velocity of 0.02 rad/min and rotational acceleration of 2.00 × 10−3 rad/min2. The analytical framework employed in this study, which integrates stress monitoring data from the PC girder with advanced numerical simulations, confirms that the concrete stresses encountered during the rotation construction process remain within acceptable limits. The successful use of the rotation construction technique demonstrates its feasibility and effectiveness as a construction method for large-span asymmetric bridges overpass multi-line railways.
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Authors and Affiliations

Changzhou Jiao
1
ORCID: ORCID
Bing Wang
2
ORCID: ORCID
Xiaoming Wang
2
ORCID: ORCID
Cheng Zheng
3
ORCID: ORCID
Shuxiang Zeng
4
ORCID: ORCID

  1. PhD., Senior Engineer, Guangzhou Railway Investment Construction Group Co., Ltd., Guangzhou 510000, China
  2. BS., Senior Engineer. China Railway Third Bureau Group Co., Ltd., Taiyuan 030024, China
  3. MS., Lecturer, Guangdong Polytechnic of Environmental Protection Engineering, Foshan 528216, China
  4. BS., Senior Engineer, China Railway Third Bureau Group Co., Ltd., Taiyuan 030024, China
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Abstract

To simultaneously meet both bearing capacity and settlement requirements in loess areas, the introduction of novel pile foundation types is crucial. A large-scale indoor model experimental was designed and conducted. The experiment tested four variables: pile spacing, pile type, number of piles, and pile length. A comprehensive analysis was conducted to determine the vertical bearing capacity of combined long and short pile foundations, including the influence of the group pile effect on combined long and short pile foundation performance. The experimental results reveal that the lateral frictional resistance of both long and short piles in the combined long and short pile foundations system acted in an alternating manner. Furthermore, the axial force and lateral frictional resistance of the corner piles were slightly greater than those of the edge and center piles. Increasing the pile spacing, the group pile effect coefficient increases from 0.83 to 0.95. This results in a 16.7% enhancement in the bearing capacity of the group pile foundation. Modifying the pile type increases the group pile effect coefficient from 0.825 to 0.94. This leads to a roughly 16% improvement in bearing capacity compared to the ring-shaped pile configuration. Reducing the number of long piles, the group effect coefficient increased from 0.825 to 0.80. The overall ultimate bearing capacity decreases by approximately 20%. Increasing the pile length results in a group pile effect coefficient of 0.87, representing a 0.45 increase compared to the base pile configuration. Consequently, the bearing capacity of the group pile foundation improves by 18.1%.
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Authors and Affiliations

Tianzhong Ma
1
ORCID: ORCID
Mengli Tian
2
ORCID: ORCID
Zhengzhen Wang
1
ORCID: ORCID

  1. Associate Prof, PhD., Eng., Lanzhou University of Technology, School of Civil Engineering, No. 287 Langongping Road, Lanzhou, China
  2. MSc., Lanzhou University of Technology, School of Civil Engineering, No. 287 Langongping Road, Lanzhou, China
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Abstract

Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT) is a versatile and widely applied geophysical method for subsurface imaging, but its reliability is strongly influenced by geological conditions. This study discusses principal challenges in surveys within thick low- and high-resistivity complexes, which distort inversion results and complicate hydrogeological and geotechnical interpretation. In low-resistivity packages (e.g., clays, marls), resistivity values are underestimated, while signals from deeper layers are attenuated, often causing downward displacement of boundaries. In high-resistivity environments (e.g., dry sands, silts), thin conductive interbeds are either masked or appear with artificially elevated resistivity values. Both situations reduce interpretational resolution and increase the risk of overlooking critical geological features. The paper emphasizes the role of survey resolution, controlled by electrode spacing, array configuration, and measurement density. Since resolution decreases with depth, small or thin structures are more reliably imaged in the shallow subsurface, whereas deeper horizons are prone to distortions. The integration of ERT results with borehole data is indispensable for constraining ambiguities and validating inversion outcomes. In addition, vertical resistivity-gradient analysis is proposed as a complementary tool, capable of revealing subtle lithological transitions that may remain undetected in conventional resistivity sections. Through case studies, it is shown how thick resistivity packages affect subsurface models and presents strategies for improving interpretation, including optimized survey design, gradient analysis, and borehole correlation. Despite inherent limitations, ERT remains effective for hydrogeological and engineering investigations, provided that methodological constraints and interpretational uncertainties are carefully addressed.
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Authors and Affiliations

Anna Lejzerowicz
1
ORCID: ORCID
Grzegorz Pacanowski
2
ORCID: ORCID
Maciej Maślakowski
1
ORCID: ORCID

  1. PhD., Warsaw University of Technology, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Al. Armii Ludowej 16, 00-637 Warsaw, Poland
  2. DSc., Eng., Polish Geological Institute – National Research Institute, Rakowiecka 4, 00-975 Warsaw, Poland
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Abstract

To solve the problem of conflicting objectives in project management in the construction industry and comply with China’s energy-saving and carbon reduction policies in the construction industry, this study introduces carbon emission conditions into a multi-objective model and designs an optimization model for project duration cost quality resources. On the basis of the mixed shuffled frog leaping algorithm, this study applies an improved encoding method, a target anchoring mixed initialization operator based on heuristic information, a design constraint handling operator, discrete jumping optimization rules, and local mining of individuals in external memory for mixing and optimization, to obtain the final multi-objective optimization solution method. The research results indicated that after the performance dimension was improved, the research method could still maintain stable and superior performance. The average fitness values of the f1 function and f2 function correspond to 1.81 · 101 and 1.81 · 101, respectively. In practical engineering project management applications, compared with the mainstream mixed frog leaping algorithm based on multi-population improved firefly algorithm, the research method obtained a total project duration that was 20 days less and a total cost that was $13125 less. Only the quality level and resource balance index were slightly inferior, with decibels of 0.93% and 49. The results indicate that the research method can quickly and effectively solve multiple solutions, enhance the competitiveness of enterprises in the construction industry, and promote the green development of the construction industry.
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Authors and Affiliations

Bo Su
1
ORCID: ORCID
Tiecheng Yan
1
ORCID: ORCID

  1. Assoc. Prof., MSc., College of Civil Engineering, Longdong University, Qingyang, 745000, China
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Abstract

The additive manufacturing process unique characteristics lead to the formation of structures with varying mechanical properties in different directions. However, current topology optimization methods often assume material isotropy, overlooking the anisotropy additive manufacturing materials. Hence, we propose a topology optimization method that accounts for additive manufacturing material anisotropy. We establish a local coordinate system to describe material anisotropy and integrate it into the SIMP variable density method, deriving the corresponding interpolation formula. The Kuhn–Tucker condition optimization criterion is applied to solve the problem, and an optimization program is developed. The method’s feasibility and effectiveness are validated through numerical examples, and we extensively discuss the impact of material anisotropy and printing direction on topology optimization results. Research demonstrates that our proposed method is adept at solving both isotropic and anisotropic topology optimization problems. Moreover, the material degree of anisotropy and printing direction significantly influence topology optimization outcomes. Accounting for material anisotropy, the maximum principal stress difference in optimization results obtained under different printing directions can reach 52.26%.
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Authors and Affiliations

Jiaowei Feng
1
ORCID: ORCID
Hui Wang
2
ORCID: ORCID
Xukai Ren
3
ORCID: ORCID
Yan Li
4
ORCID: ORCID

  1. MSc., Eng., Henan Technical Institute, School of Architecture and Engineering, No. 548. Zhengshang Road, 450042 Zhengzhou, China
  2. PhD., Eng., Southeast University, School of Civil Engineering, No. 2. Southeast University Road, 211102 Nanjing, China,
  3. Assoc. Prof., MSc., Eng., Technical Institute, School of Architecture and Engineering, No. 548. Zhengshang Road, 450042 Zhengzhou, China
  4. Eng., Zhengzhou Urban Development Group Co., Ltd., No. 2. Tongbo Road, 475007 Zhengzhou, China
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Abstract

The paper presents a stability analysis of a municipal waste landfill lined by a single-drainage and mixed sealing layer. The drainage layer is medium-dense sand, while the mixed sealing layer consists of compacted stiff highly plastic clay and a synthetic barrier in the form of a double-sided textured HDPE geomembrane. Beneath a sealing, there is a non-woven geotextile with drainage and protective functions. The landfill was assumed as a sub-level in the excavation, where the maximum height of the waste is equal to the height of the excavation slope. Variable geometrical parameters of the municipal landfill were assumed, such as the height, the width and the inclination of the waste body. The structure stability analysis was performed using the GEO5 numerical programme. The calculations were carried out several times, looking for the most unfavourable slope surface. The considerations were conducted for checking the state of equilibrium (stability) according to design approach 3 (DA3) of Eurocode 7, approved according to the Polish National Annex and accepted in most CEN countries, and according to approach 1 (DA1) and 2 (DA2) adopted in other CEN countries. The values of the degree of utilization (utilization factor) for the ultimate limit state GEO according to Eurocode 7 were given. Stability calculations were also made considering the values of safety factors, i.e., using the characteristic values of parameters and actions. The values of the utilization factors achieved in all design approaches and the safety factor were compared.
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Authors and Affiliations

Katarzyna Zabielska-Adamska
1
ORCID: ORCID
Justyna Markowska
2
ORCID: ORCID

  1. Prof., DSc., PhD., Eng., Bialystok University of Technology, Faculty of Civil Engineering and EnvironmentalSciences, ul. Wiejska 45E, 15-351 Bialystok, Poland
  2. MSc., Eng., Doctoral School of Bialystok University of Technology, ul. Wiejska 45A, 15-351 Bialystok, Poland
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Abstract

The walls of steel grain silos are susceptible to buckling. The reason for this undesirable phenomenon is the vertical impact of grain stored in the silo on the walls, most often made of corrugated sheet metal with horizontal corrugations. External, vertical stiffeners make a wall strengthened and together with corrugated sheet metals create orthogonal shell structure. The procedures included in the applicable standards make it possible to estimate the buckling load capacity of the wall of a silo constructed in this way. The paper presents an example of the analysis of the buckling load capacity of the wall of a steel silo with a capacity of 700 m3. Two of the methods recommended in applicable standards were used. Numerical simulations were also performed to determine the critical level of load intensity. The analyses carried out allowed conclusions to be drawn regarding the buckling load capacity of the wall of the analysed silo.
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Authors and Affiliations

Jakub Marcinowski
1
ORCID: ORCID
Volodymyr Sakharov
2
ORCID: ORCID

  1. Prof., DSc., PhD., Eng., University of Zielona Gora, Poland, Institute of Civil Engineering, Szafrana 1, 65-516 Zielona Gora, Poland
  2. DSc., PhD., Eng., University of Zielona Gora, Poland, Institute of Civil Engineering, Szafrana 1, 65-516 Zielona Gora, Poland
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Abstract

Recently, more and more attention has been paid to the management and organization of work and production in enterprises of various industries. Great emphasis is placed on reducing the waste of raw materials, improving productivity, and minimizing the huge amounts of waste generated, which is part of the concept of sustainable development. Every year, the construction sector produces 30% of global waste, which poses a big challenge in terms of recycling and disposal, especially in countries that do not have sufficient financial resources and technological capabilities. Implementing appropriate lean methods into the construction sector is therefore an opportunity to eliminate existing problems. This study presents a literature review, which is the basis for identifying two most frequently used lean management tools that can help reduce the amount of waste generated. The aim of the article was to assess the possibility of their application in the construction sector using SWOT analysis. Based on the research conducted, it was shown that in order to obtain the greatest benefits from the use of 5S and VSM methods, the most beneficial strategy to adopt in a construction company will be an aggressive strategy (maxi-maxi). A significant barrier to the implementation of these tools is the lack of appropriate knowledge resources and technological limitations, especially in small and medium-sized enterprises. Moreover, it was shown that over the years 2013–2024, the number of publications and interest in lean in construction systematically increased, which confirms the usefulness of these methods for the construction sector.
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Authors and Affiliations

Natalia Brycht
1
ORCID: ORCID
Małgorzata Ulewicz
2
ORCID: ORCID

  1. MSc., PhD., Eng., Czestochowa University of Technology, J.H. Dabrowskiego 69 Street, 42-201 Czestochowa, Poland
  2. Prof., DSc., PhD., Czestochowa University of Technology, J.H. Dabrowskiego 69 Street, 42-201 Czestochowa, Poland
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Abstract

This study comprises measurements of root systems of European hornbeam in forests located near Winiary, in the vicinity of Gdów (Wiśnickie Foothills, Poland) and near the town of Kanice (Moravia, Czech Republic). Field research included root measurements using the trench wall method conducted at a distance of approximately 1 m from the tree trunks. Tensile strength of the roots collected from both study sites and the geotechnical properties of the soil were determined in the laboratory. Based on the results of field measurements and laboratory tests, the root reinforcement was calculated using selected fibre bundle models. This study was aimed to compare root systems and mechanical properties of roots of the European hornbeam from the two sites and to compare the root reinforcement results obtained using different bundle models, taking into account different approaches to load distribution. The paper also discusses the impact of the tensile strength-strain characteristics of roots and their orientation relative to the direction of slip plane (zone) on the root reinforcement. The results of laboratory tests showed that tensile strength and elasticity of roots collected from both sites are very similar. Calculations showed that the values of root reinforcement computed using fiber bundle models are even 2.5 times smaller than those obtained from the classic Wu–Waldron model. On the other hand, the calculation results between fiber bundle models can differ by more than 2 times. It was also shown that the force-strain relationship used for calculation of root reinforcement has a significant impact on the results of the analyses, and the use of a bilinear force-strain relationship provides the results higher by approximately 10–13%.
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Authors and Affiliations

Tymoteusz Zydroń
1
ORCID: ORCID
Andrzej Gruchot
2
ORCID: ORCID
Jana Pařílková
3
ORCID: ORCID
David Juřička
4
ORCID: ORCID

  1. DSc., PhD., Eng., University of Agriculture in Krakow, al. Mickiewicza 21, 31-120 Cracow, Poland
  2. Assoc. Prof., PhD., Eng., University of Agriculture in Krakow, al. Mickiewicza 21, 31-120 Cracow, Poland
  3. Assoc. Prof., PhD., Eng., Brno University of Technology, Veveři 95, 602-00 Brno, Czech Republic
  4. Assis. Prof., Mendel University, Zemedelská 3, 613 00 Brno, Czech Republic
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Abstract

In order to reveal the influence of vertical and radial deformation and improve the accuracy of the calculation model of pile-soil dynamic interaction, an analytical solution of vertical dynamic impedance considering the three-dimensional wave influence of pile-soil is proposed. First, the Biot three-dimensional porous elastic medium governing equation is used to describe the dynamic behavior of saturated soil, and the pile is regarded as a three-dimensional rod with radial and vertical deformation, and its dynamic behavior is described by Navier motion equation. Then the motion equations of pile-soil are solved by the method of separation variables, and the dynamic impedance expression of pile is given. The accuracy of the proposed solution is verified by comparing with the FEM results and existing solutions. Finally, the three-dimensional solution is compared with the plane strain solution, the radial simplified solution and the one-dimensional solution. The results show that the radial deformation of the pile under the three-dimensional fluctuation effect has a significant effect on the dynamic impedance. Ignoring the radial deformation of pile will lead to overestimate the static stiffness of pile-soil system and underestimate the peak dynamic impedance of pile-soil system. When the excitation frequency �� ≤ 5 Hz, the utilization of the three-dimensional strict solution is more advantageous to obtain the dynamic impedance of the pile. In the range of excitation frequency, the radial deformation of single-phase soil can be ignored.
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Authors and Affiliations

Shaoqiang Tian
1
ORCID: ORCID
Shibin Kang
1
ORCID: ORCID
Peng Tan
1
ORCID: ORCID

  1. Eng., China Road And Bridge Corporation, Beijing 100011, China
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Abstract

The construction industry is increasingly exploring alternatives to natural aggregates, driven by sustainability concerns and landfill waste reduction. Blast furnace slag, a byproduct of steel manufacturing, exemplifies this shift, serving as a substitute aggregate or concrete additive. This transition supports the circular economy principle, where yesterday’s waste transforms into today’s resources. Key to this practice is the precise determination of material parameters, which vary depending on their origin. Among these, the filtration coefficient is critical, affecting the performance of anthropogenic aggregates in construction and infrastructure. It indicates how well materials transmit water, a factor vital for structural integrity. Machine Learning (ML) presents a promising tool for estimating such parameters efficiently. This paper explores various ML techniques for predicting the filtration coefficient, comparing their effectiveness and examining the impact of the physical properties of aggregates on model accuracy. Through this approach, the paper aims to identify the most suitable methods for parameter estimation, which could enhance the durability and stability of constructions that utilize recycled materials. This research not only contributes to the field of civil engineering but also advances sustainable practices within the industry.
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Authors and Affiliations

Justyna Dzięcioł
1
ORCID: ORCID
Roman Tracz
2
ORCID: ORCID
Jan Kowalski
3
ORCID: ORCID

  1. PhD., Eng., Warsaw University of Life Sciences, Institute of Civil Engineering, Nowoursynowska 166, 02-787Warsaw, Poland
  2. Prof., PhD., Eng.,Warsaw University of Life Sciences, Institute of Civil Engineering, Nowoursynowska 166, 02-787Warsaw, Poland
  3. PhD., Eng., Warsaw University of Life Sciences, Institute of Civil Engineering, Nowoursynowska 166, 02-787 Warsaw, Poland
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Abstract

The article presents the results of own research on the costs of quality of aluminum-glass facades and ventilated facades from the perspective of Polish production and assembly companies. The main aim of the research was to collect information on the impact of the identified 22 factors on the quality costs associated with the implementation of facade systems. The research used an expert survey method. The selection of the research sample was non-random. Survey questionnaires were addressed to 65 respondents, including: constructors/designers, construction managers or engineers, assembly managers, production department employees, cost estimators and other specialists related to the production and installation of facade systems. The return of completed surveys was 41 (63.08%). The survey form was divided into two parts. The first part aimed to collect information about the respondents’ experience. The main part of the form focuses on issues related to the costs of quality of aluminum and glass facades and ventilated facades. Respondents were asked whether the proposed 22 factors can actually affect the quality costs of implementing facade systems. Positive responses were received. Moreover, respondents were asked to assess the degree of importance of the impact of the mentioned factors on the quality costs of constructed facades and ventilated facades. For this purpose, a five-point Likert scale was used, where 1 means very low influence and 5 means very high influence. Based on the results obtained, an average rating was determined for each factor, and then each of the 22 factors was ranked according to the degree of importance. Respondents indicated that the following factors have the greatest impact on the quality costs of facade systems: assembly errors (average factor rating = 4.22), design errors (4.00) and complaints (3.83).
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Authors and Affiliations

Monika Górka-Stańczyk
1
ORCID: ORCID
Agnieszka Leśniak
2
ORCID: ORCID
Damian Wieczorek
1
ORCID: ORCID

  1. PhD., Eng., Cracow University of Technology, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Warszawska St. 24, 31-155 Cracow, Poland
  2. DSc., PhD., Eng., prof. of CUT, Cracow University of Technology, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Warszawska St. 24,31-155 Cracow, Poland
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Abstract

In civil engineering, information systems are increasingly being utilized, particularly Building Information Modeling (BIM) technology. BIM is currently most prominently used in the design and construction phases, with less intensity observed in the implementation of solutions in later phases of operation and/or demolition. However, these issues mainly concern recently constructed objects, for which a digital twin was created at the design stage, greatly facilitating the decision-making process for managers to implement such solutions. In this article, the authors focus on presenting an example of using the Common Data Environment (CDE) platform for managing an existing building, for which 3D documentation was not created in earlier stages of the lifecycle. For analysis and as an attempt to implement the use of BIM technology, building D-2 located on the AGH campus was selected. Virtual documentation in the form of a “digital twin” was prepared for the selected object. The traditional and currently practiced property management plan was analyzed. Firstly, a plan for repetitive tasks was presented, including required building inspections and cyclical work performed. Subsequently, a process of action in case of a selected failure was developed. The traditional management plan was compared with the one prepared using the digital platform. The advantages and disadvantages of each solution were identified, and the validity of introducing process improvement for building administration using the selected tool was verified.
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Authors and Affiliations

Aleksandra Radziejowska
1
ORCID: ORCID
Karolina Drozdowska
2
ORCID: ORCID

  1. PhD., Eng., Faculty of Civil Engineering and Resource Management, AGH University of Krakow, Al. Mickiewicza 30, 30-059 Cracow, Poland
  2. Eng., student of Faculty of Civil Engineering and Resource Management, AGH University of Krakow, Al. Mickiewicza 30, 30-059 Cracow, Poland
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Abstract

The time required for construction processes is closely related to the complexity of the project and its specific nature (variable impact factors). A new scheduling method with a probabilistic approach has been developed – Probabilistic Time Couplings Method III (PTCM III). PTCM III is based on the assumptions of Time Couplings Method III (TCM III), which has been improved by using the predictive Multivariate Method of Statistical Models (MMSM) and construction process standard deviations. PTCM III enables the time-cost optimisation of a construction project while taking into account the risks and uncertainties of construction processes. The priority of the method is to minimise the execution time of the project, with the possibility of downtime of work sectors or workers. The paper presents presents the formulas and calculation methodology, based on algorithmisation. In order to best present the capabilities and effects of PTCM III, a case study was carried out in the paper, in which the results of the calculations were compared with other variants of time coupling methods in probabilistic terms. The result of the PTCM III calculations is a range of the duration of a construction project together with the probability of its realisation. The most pessimistic completion time was calculated to be 412.7 working days, the most optimistic was calculated to be 388.7 working days and the 50% completion probability was determined to be 400.7 working days. This allows for more flexible construction scheduling and the adoption of lead times based on the contractor’s capabilities and the decision-maker’s assessment.
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Authors and Affiliations

Paulina Kostrzewa-Demczuk
1
ORCID: ORCID
Magdalena Rogalska
2
ORCID: ORCID

  1. PhD., Eng., Kielce University of Technology, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Al. Tysiaclecia PanstwaPolskiego 7, 25-314 Kielce, Poland
  2. DSc., PhD., Eng., Lublin University of Technology, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Nadbystrzycka St.40, 20-618 Lublin, Poland
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Abstract

The annual intensive exploitation of natural resources results in the generation of substantial amounts of waste, with construction being the primary contributor. This sector is accountable for nearly half of all non-renewable resources consumed by humanity and for producing over one million construction and demolition (C&D) wastes annually. An alternative approach to managing construction and demolition wastes involves recycling and reclaiming materials on-site for environmental remediation purposes. The research aimed to explore the potential use of concrete waste as a reactive material for groundwater remediation contaminated with heavy metals (Cu, Zn) and chlorides. Concrete C&D waste was gathered from demolition sites in Warsaw, crushed to the appropriate size, and subjected to preliminary tests to assess its physical and chemical properties, including granulometric analysis, absorbability, specific surface area, and sorption capacity. Additionally, surface modification of selected concrete wastes was performed to enhance their ability to retain contaminants, alongside batch tests (kinetic and chemical equilibrium reaction) using both raw and modified materials. The kinetic studies indicated that the pseudo-second order model best fit the test results (determination coefficient ��2 value in the range of 0.72–0.99), while the chemical equilibrium studies revealed that the Langmuir, Freundlich, and Redlich–Peterson models were suitable (��2 in the range of 0.70–0.90). The findings demonstrated that C&D waste holds promise as an adsorbent material for environmental protection and remediation purposes.
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Authors and Affiliations

Katarzyna Pawluk
1
ORCID: ORCID
Grzegorz Wrzesiński
1
ORCID: ORCID
Marzena Lendo-Siwicka
2
ORCID: ORCID
Konrad Piechowicz
2
ORCID: ORCID

  1. PhD., Eng., Warsaw University of Life Sciences, Institute of Civil Engineering, Nowoursynowska 159, 02-776 Warsaw, Poland
  2. PhD., Eng., Warsaw University of Life Sciences, Institute of Civil Engineering, Nowoursynowska 159, 02-776 Warsaw, Poland,

Publication Ethics Policy

ETHICS POLICY

”Archives of Civil Engineering” respects and promotes the principles of publishing ethics. Being guided by COPE’s Guidelines ( https://publicationethics.org/resources/guidelines) we ensure that all participants of the publishing process comply with these rules, the journal pays special attention to:

Editor Responsibilities
1. Qualifying individual manuscripts for publication only on the basis of: (a) compliance with the guidelines provided to the authors, (b) substantive value, (c) originality, (d) transparency of presentation
2. Deciding whether the paper fulfills all requirements i.e. formal and scientific and which articles submitted to the journal should be published. In making these decisions, the editor may be guided by the policies of the journal’s editorial board as well as by legal requirements regarding libel, copyright infringement, and plagiarism.
3. Evaluating manuscripts for intellectual content without regard to race, gender, sexual orientation, religious belief, ethnic origin, citizenship, or political philosophy of the author(s).
4. Ensuring scientific accuracy and complying with the principle of authorship; making sure that individual authors who contribute to the publication accept its form after the scientific editing
5. Providing a fair and appropriate peer review process.
6. Withdrawing manuscripts from publication, if any information about its unreliability appeared, also as a result of unintentional errors, features of plagiarism or violation of the rules of publishing ethics were identified.
7. Requiring all contributors to disclose relevant competing interests and publish corrections if competing interests are revealed after publication. If needed, other appropriate action should be taken, such as the publication of a retraction or expression of concern.
8. Maintaining the integrity of the academic record, precludes business needs from compromising intellectual and ethical standards, and is always willing to publish corrections, clarifications, retractions, and apologies when needed.
9. Not disclosing any information about a manuscript under consideration to anyone other than the author(s), reviewers and potential reviewers, and in some instances the editorial board members, as appropriate.

Reviewer Responsibilities
1. Cooperating with the scientific editor and / or editorial office and the authors in the field of improving the reviewed material;
2. Being objective and expressing the views clearly with appropriate supporting arguments.
3. Assessing of the entrusted works in a careful and objective manner, if possible with an assessment of their scientific reliability and with appropriate justification of the comments submitted;
4. identifying relevant published work that has not been cited by the authors
5. calling to the editor's attention any substantial similarity or overlap between the manuscript under consideration and any other published data of which they have personal knowledge
6. Maintaining the principle of fair play, excluding personal criticism of the author (s)
7. Maintaining confidentiality, which is not showing or discussing with others except those authorized by the editor. Any manuscripts received for review are treated as confidential documents.
8. Performing a review within the set time limit or accepting another solution jointly with ACE in the event of failure to meet this deadline.
9. Notifying the editor if the invited reviewer feels unqualified to review the manuscript or knows that its timely review will be impossible.
10. identifying relevant published work that has not been cited by the authors
11. Not considering evaluating manuscripts in which they have conflicts of interest resulting from competitive, collaborative, or other relationships or connections with any of the authors, companies, or institutions connected to the submission.

Author Responsibilities
1. Results of original research should present an accurate account of the work performed as well as an objective discussion of its significance. Underlying data should be represented accurately in the manuscript. A paper should contain sufficient detail and references to permit others to replicate the work. Fraudulent or knowingly inaccurate statements constitute unethical behaviour and are unacceptable.
2. The authors should follow the principle of originality, which is submitting only their own original works, and in the case of using the works of other authors, marking them in accordance with the rules of quotation, or obtaining consent for the publication of previously published materials from their owners or administrators;
3. An author should not in general publish manuscripts describing essentially the same research in more than one journal or primary publication. Parallel submission of the same manuscript to more than one journal constitutes unethical publishing behaviour and is unacceptable.
4. Authorship should be limited to those who have made a significant contribution to the conception, design, execution, or interpretation of the reported study and phenomena such as ghostwriting or guest authorship in the event of their detection must be actively counteracted.
5. All authors should report in a Reliable manner the sources they used to create their own study and their inclusion in the attachment bibliography;
6. All those who have made significant contributions should be listed as co-authors. Where there are others who have participated in certain substantive aspects of the research project, they should be named in an Acknowledgement section.
7. The corresponding author should ensure that all appropriate co-authors (according to the above definition) and no inappropriate co-authors are included in the author list of the manuscript, and that all co-authors have seen and approved the final version of the paper and have agreed to its submission for publication.
8. All authors should disclose in their manuscript any financial or other substantive conflict of interest that might be construed to influence the results or their interpretation in the manuscript. All sources of financial support for the project should be disclosed.
9. When an author discovers a significant error or inaccuracy in his/her own published work, it is the author’s obligation to promptly notify the journal’s editor or publisher and cooperate with them to either retract the paper or to publish an appropriate erratum.

Publisher’s Confirmation
In cases of alleged or proven scientific misconduct, fraudulent publication or plagiarism the publisher, in close collaboration with the editors, will take all appropriate measures to clarify the situation and to amend the article in question. This includes the prompt publication of an erratum or, in the most severe cases, the complete retraction of the affected work.

Peer-review Procedure

Manuscript Peer-Review Procedure

”Archives of Civil Engineering” makes sure to provide transparent policies for peer-review, and reviewers have an obligation to conduct reviews in an ethical and accountable manner. There is clear communication between the journal and the reviewers which facilitates consistent, fair, and timely review.

-The model of peer-review is double-blind: the reviewers do not know the names of the authors, and the authors do not know who reviewed their manuscript (but if the research is published reviewers can eventually know the names of the authors). A complete list of reviewers is published in a traditional version of the journal: in-print.
-It is the editor who appoints two reviewers; however, if there are discrepancies in the assessment the third reviewer can be appointed.
-After having accepted to review the manuscript (one-week deadline), the reviewers have approximately 6 weeks to finish the process.
-The paper is published in ACE provided that the reviews are positive. All manuscripts receive grades from 1-5, 5 being positive, 1 negative, the authors receive reviews to read and consider the comments.
-Manuscript evaluations are assigned one of five outcomes: accept without changes, accept after changes suggested by the reviewer, rate manuscript once again after major changes and another review, reject, withdraw.
-Manuscripts requiring minor revision (accept after changes suggested by the reviewer) does not require a second review. All manuscripts receiving a "Rate manuscript once again after major changes and another review " evaluation must be subjected to a second review. Rejected manuscripts are given no further consideration. There are cases when the article can be withdrawn, often upon the request of an author, technical reason (e.g. names of authors are placed in the text, lack of references, or inappropriate structure of the text), or plagiarism.
-The revised version of the manuscript should be uploaded to the Editorial System within six weeks. If the author(s) failed to make satisfactory changes, the manuscript is rejected.
-On acceptance, manuscripts are subject to editorial amendment to suit house style.
-Paper publication requires the author's final approval.
- As soon as the publication appears in print and in electronic forms on the Internet there is no possibility to change the content of the article.

Editor’s responsibilities
-The editor decides whether the paper fulfills all requirements i.e. formal and scientific and which articles submitted to the journal should be published.
-In making these decisions, the editor may be guided by the policies of the journal’s editorial board as well as by legal requirements regarding libel, copyright infringement, and plagiarism.
-The editor maintains the integrity of the academic record, precludes business needs from compromising intellectual and ethical standards, and is always willing to publish corrections, clarifications, retractions, and apologies when needed.
-The editor evaluates manuscripts for intellectual content without regard to race, gender, sexual orientation, religious belief, ethnic origin, citizenship, or political philosophy of the author(s).
-The editor does not disclose any information about a manuscript under consideration to anyone other than the author(s), reviewers and potential reviewers, and in some instances the editorial board members, as appropriate.

Reviewers' responsibilities
Any manuscripts received for review are treated as confidential documents. They must not be shown to or discussed with others except if authorized by the editor. Privileged information or ideas obtained through peer review is kept confidential and not used for personal advantage Any invited reviewer who feels unqualified to review the manuscript or knows that its timely review will be impossible should immediately notify the editor so that alternative reviewers can be contacted. Reviewers should identify relevant published work that has not been cited by the authors. Any statement that an observation, derivation, or argument had been previously reported should be accompanied by the relevant citation. A reviewer should also call to the editor's attention any substantial similarity or overlap between the manuscript under consideration and any other published data of which they have personal knowledge. Reviewers should not consider evaluating manuscripts in which they have conflicts of interest resulting from competitive, collaborative, or other relationships or connections with any of the authors, companies, or institutions connected to the submission. Reviews should be conducted objectively. Personal criticism of the author is unacceptable. Referees should express their views clearly with appropriate supporting arguments. All reviews must be carried out on a special form available in the Editorial System.

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